J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye - 1435 Words

This paper proposes to delineate the characteristics of Holden Caulfield, the adolescent protagonist hero of J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye and illuminate the reasons as to why this prototype of brooding adolescence, displaying a rather uber-cool style of disaffection, disenchantment and disillusionment became an indispensable figure of interest, in literary circles as well as popular culture. The paper seeks to take issue with the wider dimensions attached to the ‘incapacitation and debilitation’ Holden is often accused and address Salinger’s vision behind etching Caulfield precisely the way he is. The paper also wishes to foreground the socio-political implications that reverberate within the rubric of the novel, Holden’s characterization and his abhorrence at the ‘phoniness’ that surrounds him- an aspect of the novel that has oft been overlooked by critics, reviewers and commentators alike in their attempt to mete out an avala nche of critical inquiries into the overarching framework of timeless, transcendent morality, which manages to escape the roots of context that bred it. Also, an important aim of the paper is to collate critical attention on Caulfield into a cogent effort to place him in his rightful position as a remarkable hero of literary merit, akin to the oft-discussed analogies and comparisons of him with Huck Finn, David Copperfield, Stephen Dedalus, Leopold Bloom, Peter Pan, Natty Bumppo, Quentin Compson and the like. Towards the end of such aShow MoreRelatedJ.D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye595 Words   |  2 PagesResponsibility is considered to be a natural addition to life as people grow older. Holden Caulfield struggles to accept his responsibility in his life throughout the novel The Catcher in the Rye. During the course of the novel, Holden experiences the sudden pressure of responsibility caused by his actions. As his counter attack to the unwanted situations he faces, Holden doe s what most people would do and rejects the direction his life is now headed. Holden Caulfield shows his revulsion to acceptRead MoreAn Analysis of J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye1223 Words   |  5 PagesIn J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield is portrayed as a young, troubled individual. He tells us his story from the mental institution where he is currently residing. Holden is a 16 year old going through many different adolescent changes. He is expelled from his prep school for flunking too many subjects. He drinks, smokes, sees a prostitute, is punched by her pimp, goes on dates, spends a great deal of time in the park, and really does not do a great deal else. HoldenRead MoreEssay on J.D. Salingers The Catcher In The Rye2037 Words   |  9 PagesJ.D. Salingers The Catcher In The Rye   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The novel The Catcher In The Rye, by J.D. Salinger, contains many complex symbols, many of the symbols in the book are interconnected. A symbol is an object represents an idea that is important to the novel. I believe the most important symbol in this novel is Holden’s idea of being the â€Å"catcher in the rye†.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Holden Caulfield, the main character in the novel, is not the typical sixteen year old boy. Holden has many characteristics that aren’tRead More Immaturity of Holden in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye577 Words   |  3 PagesImmaturity of Holden in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye In J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, the main character, Holden, cannot accept that he must move out of childhood and into adulthood. One of Holden’s most important major problems is his lack of maturity. Holden also has a negative perspective of life that makes things seem worse than they really are. In addition to Holden’s problems he is unable to accept the death of his brother at a young age. Holden’s immaturity, negativeRead More Symbolism in J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye Essay2842 Words   |  12 Pagesif only read for face value, and J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye is no exception. The abundant use of symbolism in Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye is of such significance that it â€Å"proclaims itself in the very title of the novel† (Trowbridge par. 1). If the symbolism in this novel is studied closely, there should be no astonishment in learning that The Catcher in the Rye took approximately te n years to write and was originally twice its present length. J.D. Salinger uses copious amounts ofRead MoreThe Use of Language in J.D. Salingers Catcher in the Rye3182 Words   |  13 PagesThe use of language in J.D. Salingers Catcher in the Rye Holden Caulfield, the protagonist of J.D. Salingers Catcher in the Rye, is an upper-class boy who has gone from one private school to another, searching for -- something. He expresses his frustrations in language highly characteristic of adolescence; his extremely colloquial speech sounds just like that of teenagers today, even though Salingers novel was written in the 1950s. But a particularly striking factor of Holdens narration isRead MoreEssay on Overcoming Trauma in J.D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye663 Words   |  3 PagesOvercoming Trauma in J.D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye In The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger, Holden is in a rest home, where he speaks about his past and discusses his thoughts and feelings of his memories. Holden tells about his life including his past experiences at many different private schools, most recently Pensey Prep, his friends, and his late brother Allie which led to Holden’s own mental destruction. I believe that Holden Caulfield is mentally disturbed and shows manyRead More Holdens Depression in J.D. Salingers The Catcher in the Rye 1546 Words   |  7 Pagesdepressed at some time or another in their lives.   However, it becomes a problem when depression is so much a part of a persons life that he or she can no longer  experience happiness.   This  happens to the young boy, Holden Caulfield in J.D Salingers novel, The Catcher in the Rye.   Mr. Antolini accurately views the cause of Holdens depression as his lack of personal motivation, his inability to self-reflect and his stubbornness to overlook the obvious which collectively results in him giving up on lifeRead MoreThe First Person Narrator in J.D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye1097 Words   |  5 PagesIn J.D Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, the first person narration played a critical role in helping the reader to know and understand the main character, Holden Caulfield. Salinger also uses s ymbolism to help portray the theme that not everything that glitters is gold. Holden, in his narration, relates a flashback of a significant period of his life, three days and nights on his own in New York City. Through his narration, Holden discloses to the reader his innermost thoughts and also helps toRead MoreHolden Caulfield, from J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye681 Words   |  3 PagesHolden vs. Will The characters Holden Caulfield, from J.D. Salinger’s The Catcher in the Rye, and Will Hunting, from Good Will Hunting, have very similar personalities; however, they live in completely different worlds. The Catcher in the Rye is narrated by Holden Caulfield. He is a seventeen year old from New York City, and in the book, he comes to terms with his past. The story is told from a psychiatric institution. The movie Good Will Hunting is about a very intelligent twenty year old, Will

A Feminist Perspective On Women - 959 Words

All across the world women are being discriminated against for their gender. Feminism is the movement to combat this. Though there are many misconstructions to what being a feminist means, Webster’s Dictionary defines feminism as â€Å"the theory of the political, economic, and social equality of the sexes.† Feminism is not about one gender being above the other but allowing both to be equal in all ways. Sexism is expressed in varies different ways. In countries like America, the sexism faced is shown through things such as the wage gap and gender roles. In other countries, however, such as Indian and China, the sexism faced is more extreme and the women are in more sever danger. Some people do not believe there is a need for a feminist movement, and that women have equal rights. One huge issue that women face is the wage gap. People argue that laws such as the Equal Pay Act has gotten rid of the need for women’s suffrage, but a wage gap still exists. For every dollar a man makes, the average white woman makes 78 cents. African-American women make 64 cents and Hispanic women averagely make a mere 56 cents to the man’s dollar. Something that affects women’s earnings is lower work hours and â€Å"their years with zero earnings due to family care.† â€Å"Women workers in their prime earning years earned 62% less than men, or only $0.38 for every dollar men earned. During that 15-year period, the average woman earned only $273,592 while the average man earned $722,693 (in 1999 dollars).†Show MoreRelatedA Feminist Perspective On Rural Women Essay1531 Words   |  7 PagesRural women, especially farmers, are one of the most impov erished groups of people in the United States (Hacker, 1980, p. 237). Often, rural women struggle to survive in today’s society because they have no modern skills and have trouble running farms, as farms are habitually considered to be family-owned, male-run businesses (Hacker, 1980, p. 237). Sociologist Sally Hacker (1980), who also has old yet relevant research, contends that â€Å"the skills required by farming give many women and their daughtersRead MoreA Feminist Perspective On Women s Homelessness1956 Words   |  8 Pagesliterature explaining women s homelessness in the United Kingdom, have argued from a feminist perspective which highlighted that the market dominated housing policies disadvantage female-led households based on a gendered division of labour, (Watson and Austerberry, 1986) . Furthermore (Pleace, and Quilgars, 1996), asserted that dominant family model assumes domestic roles for women, such that family care, child care and other domestic duties as sole ly that responsibility for women. (Razzu, 2014) studiesRead More Indigenous and Global Feminist Perspectives on the Women of Chiapas4167 Words   |  17 PagesIndigenous and Global Feminist Perspectives on the Women of Chiapas Womens reproductive health is a debated and complex issue in todays society. 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Using both the feminist and rhetoricianà ¢â‚¬â„¢s perspectives, I will analyze Martin Luther King Jr’s I HaveRead MoreFeminist Theology1492 Words   |  6 PagesFeminist Theology Feminist theology is based on the idea of not lord but brother. Jesus Christ himself stepped outside of societies norms by befriending the outcasts of society, which included women. Women are often portrayed as the cause of or focus of evil and misdeeds in the bible. The focus of feminist theology is the perspective of theology from those who were outcast and therefore considered themselves as equals and friends to Jesus Christ. If there is anything they desire to know,Read MoreSusan Wendell Toward a Feminist Theory of Disability1269 Words   |  6 PagesDisabled women in society are doubly marginalized; they are neither understood or accepted by mainstream heterosexual society or by feminist theorists. Indeed, according to Susan Wendell, their embodied social reality has been ignored by philosophers and feminist theorists. The main focus of Susan Wendell’s article on â€Å"Towards a Feminist Theory of Disability†is to use the power of her own experience of going from able to disabled to argue that the voice of the disabled is missing from the standardRead MoreThe Common Denominator of Security and Feminism600 Words   |  3 Pagesstruggles of the women`s movement and the theory that flows from their experiences, about women`s security understanding that transform our understanding of men`s security. The link between feminism and security points out that understanding security issues needs an enlargement to include specific security concerns and beliefs of women. This research emphasizes context-based interpretations of gender in human security. In respect of a widen concept of human security, a feminist perspective highlights fromRead MoreEssay Feminism and feminist social theory 1100 Words   |  5 PagesFeminism and feminist social theory unlike other theoretical perspectives is woman-centered and inter-disciplinary, hence promotes methods of achieving social justice. The feminism and feminist social theory takes into consideration three questions, what of the women? Why is the present social world as it is today? Additionally, how can the social world be changed to make it more just for the women and all people alike? In recent developments, feminist theorists have begun questioning the differencesRead MoreFeminism : Waves Of Debates Within Feminism Essay1658 Words   |  7 PagesFeminism, in simple terms, refers to a collective desire to end the oppression of women. Because oppression takes various forms and affects those who are victi m to it in a number of different, yet often connected ways; feminism should accordingly be regarded as a multifaceted set of movements working towards multiple aims and ends. Which is to say that feminism is less a single movement concerned with the oppression of women, and more a gathering of movements concerned with a number of oppressive structuresRead MoreFamily Roles and Relationships: Examining the Contribution of Feminist Sociologists1732 Words   |  7 Pagesï » ¿Using material from Item 2B and elsewhere assess the contribution of feminist sociologists to an understanding of family roles and relationships. In this essay I will be assessing the contribution of feminist sociologists to an understanding of family roles and relationships. There are different roles in families such as: Conjugal; where both the partners share task such as housework and childcare, the opposite of this would be segregated roles; where the couples have separate roles, the male

The Function of Criticism at the Present Time Free Essays

string(324) " of the creative power in the production of great works of literature or art, however high this exercise of it may rank, is not at all epochs and under all conditions possible; and that therefore labour may be vainly spent in attempting it, which might with more fruit be used in preparing for it, in rendering it possible\." THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Matthew Arnold THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Table of Contents THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1 Matthew Arnold†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 1 i THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Matthew Arnold This page copyright  © 2001 Blackmask Online. ttp://www. We will write a custom essay sample on The Function of Criticism at the Present Time or any similar topic only for you Order Now blackmask. com â€Å"Our antagonist is our helper. This amicable conflict with difficulty obliges us to an intimate acquaintance with our object, and compels us to consider it in all its relations. It will not suffer us to be superficial. â€Å" BURKE. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME. MANY objections have been made to a proposition which, in some remarks of mine on translating Homer, I ventured to put forth; a proposition about criticism, and its importance at the present day. I said: â€Å"Of the literature of France and Germany, as of the intellect of Europe in general, the main effort, for now many years, has been a critical effort; the endeavour, in all branches of knowledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, science, to see the object as in itself it really is. † I added, that owing to the operation in English litera? ture of certain causes, â€Å"almost the last thing for which one would come to English literature is just that very thing which now Europe most desires criticism;† and that the power and value of English literature was thereby impaired. More than one rejoinder declared that the importance I here assigned to criticism was excessive, and asserted the inherent superiority of the creative effort of the human spirit over its critical effort. And the other day, having been led by an excellent notice of Wordsworth published in the North British Review, to turn again to his biography, I found, in the words of this great man, whom I, for one, must always listen to with the profoundest respect, a sentence passed on the critic’s business, which seems to justify every possible disparagement of it. Wordsworth says in one of his letters: â€Å"The writers in these publications† (the Reviews), â€Å"while they prosecute their inglorious employment, can? not be supposed to be in a state of mind very favour? able for being affected by the finer influences of a thing so pure as genuine poetry. † And a trustworthy reporter of his conversation quotes a more elaborate judgment to the same effect: â€Å"Wordsworth holds the critical power very low, in? initely lower than the inventive and he said to? day that if the quantity of time consumed in writing critiques on the works of others were given to original com? position, of whatever kind it might be, it would be much better employed; it would make a man find out sooner his own level, and it would do infinitely less mischief. A false or malicious criticism may do much injury to the minds of others; a stupid invention, either in prose or verse, is quite harmless. It is almost too much to expect of poor human nature, that a man capable of producing some effect in one line of literature, should, for the greater good of society, voluntarily doom himself to impotence and obscurity in another. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 1 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Still less is this to be expected from men addicted to the composition of the â€Å"false or malicious criticism,† of which Wordsworth speaks. How? ver, everybody would admit that a false or malicious criticism had better never have been written. Every? body, too, would be willing to admit, as a general propo? sition, that the critical faculty is lower than the inventive. But is it true that criticism is really, in itself, a baneful and injurious employment; is it true that all time given to writing critiques on the works of others would be much better employed if it were given to original composition, of whatever kind this may be? Is it true that Johnson had better have gone on producing more Irenes instead of writing his Lives of the Poets; nay, is it certain that Wordsworth himself was better employed in making his Ecclesiastical Sonnets, than when he made his celebrated Preface, so full of criticism, and criticism of the works of others? Wordsworth was himself a great critic, and it is to be sincerely regretted that he has not left us more criticism; Goethe was one of the greatest of critics, and we may sincerely congratu? late ourselves that he has left us so much criticism. Without wasting time over the exaggeration which Wordsworth’s judgment on criticism clearly contains, or over an attempt to trace the causes, not difficult I think to be traced, which may have led Wordsworth to this exaggeration, a critic may with advantage seize an occasion for trying his own conscience, and for asking himself of what real service, at any given moment, the practice of criticism either is, or may be made, to his own mind and spirit, and to the minds and spirits of others. The critical power is of lower rank than the creative. True; but in assenting to this proposition, one or two things are to be kept in mind. It is undeniable that the exercise of a creative power, that a free creative activity, is the true function of man; it is proved to be so by man’s finding in it his true happiness. But it is un? deniable, also, that men may have the sense of exercising this free creative activity in other ways than in producing great works of literature or art; if it were not so, all but a very few men would be shut out from the true happiness of all men; they may have it in well? oing, they may have it in learning, they may have it even in criticising. This is one thing to be kept in mind. Another is, that the exercise of the creative power in the production of great works of literature or art, however high this exercise of it may rank, is not at all epochs and under all conditions possible; and that therefore labour may be vainly spent in attempting it, which might with more fruit be used in preparing for i t, in rendering it possible. You read "The Function of Criticism at the Present Time" in category "Essay examples" This creative power works with elements, with materials; what if it has not those materials, those elements, ready for its use? In that case it must surely wait till they are ready. Now in literature, I will limit myself to literature, for it is about literature that the question arises, the elements with which the creative power works are ideas; the best ideas, on every matter which literature touches, current at the time; at any rate we may lay it down as certain that in modern literature no manifestation of the creative power not working with these can be very important or fruitful. And I say current at the time, not merely accessible at the time; for creative literary genius does not principally show itself in discovering new ideas; that is rather the business of the philosopher; the grand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery; its gift lies in the faculty of being happily inspired by a certain intellectual and spiritual atmosphere, by a certain order of ideas, when it finds itself in them; of dealing divinely with these ideas, presenting them in the most effective and attractive combinations, making beautiful works with them, in short. But it must have the atmosphere, it must find itself amidst the order of ideas, in order to work freely; and these it is not so easy to command. This is why great creative epochs in literature are so rare; this is why there is so much that is unsatisfactory in the productions of many men of real genius; because for the creation of a master? work of literature two powers must concur, the power of the man and the power of the moment, and the man is not enough without the moment; the creative power has, for its happy exercise, appointed elements, and those ele? ents are not in its own control. Nay, they are more within the control of the critical power. It is the business of the critical power, as I said in the words already quoted, â€Å"in all branches of know? ledge, theology, philosophy, history, art, science, to see the object as in itself it really is. † Thus it tends, at last, to make an intellectual situation of which the creative power can profitably avail itself. It tends to establish an order of ideas, if not absolutely true, yet true by comparison with that which it displaces; to make the best ideas prevail. Presently these new ideas reach society, the touch of truth is the touch of life, and there is a stir and growth everywhere; out of this stir and growth come the creative epochs of literature. Or, to narrow our range, and quit these considerations of the general march of genius and of society, THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 2 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME considera? tions which are apt to become too abstract and impalp? able, every one can see that a poet, for instance, ought to know life and the world before dealing with them in poetry; and life and the world being, in modern times, very complex things, the creation of a modern poet, to be worth much, implies a great critical effort behind it; else it must be a comparatively poor, barren, and short? ived affair. This is why Byron’s poetry had so little endurance in it, and Goethe’s so much; both Byron and Goethe had a great productive power, but Goethe’s was nourished by a great critical effort providing the true materials for it, and Byron’s was not; Goethe knew life and the world, the poet’s necessary subjects, much more comprehensively and thoroughly than Byron. He knew a great deal more of them, and he knew them much more as they really are. It has long seemed to me that the burst of creative activity in our literature, through the first quarter of this century, had about it, in fact, something premature; and that from this cause its productions are doomed, most of them, in spite of the sanguine hopes which accompanied and do still accompany them, to prove hardly more lasting than the productions of far less splendid epochs. And this prematureness comes from its having proceeded without having its proper data, without sufficient materials to work with. In other words, the English poetry of the first quarter of this century, with plenty of energy, plenty of creative force, did not know enough. This makes Byron so empty of matter, Shelley so incoherent, Words? worth even, profound as he is, yet so wanting in com? pleteness and variety. Wordsworth cared little for books, and disparaged Goethe. I admire Wordsworth, as he is, so much that I cannot wish him different; and it is vain, no doubt, to imagine such a man different from what he is, to suppose that he could have been different; but surely the one thing wanting to make Wordsworth an even greater poet than he is, is thought richer, and his influence of wider application, was that he should have read more books, among them, no doubt, those of that Goethe whom he disparaged without reading him. But to speak of books and reading may easily lead to a misunderstanding here. It was not really books and reading that lacked to our poetry, at this epoch; Shelley had plenty of reading, Cole ridge had immense reading. Pindar and Sophocles, as we all say so glibly, and often with so little discernment of the real import of what we are saying, had ot many books; Shakspeare was no deep reader. True; but in the Greece of Pindar and Sophocles, in the England of Shakspeare, the poet lived in a current of ideas in the highest degree animating and nourishing to the creative power; society was, in the fullest measure, permeated by fresh thought, intelligent and alive; and this state of things is the true basis for the creative power’s exercise, in this it finds its data, its materials, truly ready for its hand; all the books and reading in the world are only valuable as they are helps to this. Even when this does not actually exist, books and reading may enable a man to construct a kind of semblance of it in his own mind, a world of knowledge and intelligence in which he may live and work; this is by no means an equivalent, to the artist, for the nationally diffused life and thought of the epochs of Sophocles or Shakspeare, but, besides that it may be a means of preparation for such epochs, it does really constitute, if many share in it, a quickening and sustaining atmosphere of great value. Such an atmosphere the many? sided learning and the long and widely? ombined critical effort of Germany formed for Goethe, when he lived and worked. There was no national glow of life and thought there, as in the Athens of Pericles, or the England of Elizabeth. That was the poet’s weakness. But there was a sort of equivalent for it in the complete culture and unfettered thinking of a large body of Germans. That was his strength. In the England of the first quarter of this centur y, there was neither a national glow of life and thought, such as we had in the age of Elizabeth, nor yet a culture and a force of learning and criticism, such as were to be found in Germany. Therefore the creative power of poetry wanted, for success in the highest sense, materials and a basis; a thorough interpretation of the world was necessarily denied to it. At first sight it seems strange that out of the immense stir of the French Revolution and its age should not have come a crop of works of genius equal to that which came out of the stir of the great productive time of Greece, or out of that of the Renaissance, with its powerful episode the Reformation. But the truth is that the stir of the French Revolution took a character which essentially distinguished it from such movements as these. These were, in the main, disinterestedly intellectual and spiritual movements; movements in which the human spirit looked for its satisfaction in itself and in the in? creased play of its own activity: the French Revolution took a political, practical character. The movement which went on in France under the old regime, from 1700 to 1789, was far more really akin than that of the Revolution itself to the movement of the Renaissance; the France of Voltaire and THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 3 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME Rousseau told far more powerfully upon the mind of Europe than the France of the Revolution. Goethe reproached this last expressly with having â€Å"thrown quiet culture back. † Nay, and the true key to how much in our Byron, even in our Words? worth, is this! that they had their source in a great movement of feeling, not in a great movement of mind. The French Revolution, however, that object of so much blind love and so much blind hatred, found undoubtedly its motive? ower in the intelligence of men and not in their practical sense; this is what distinguishes it from the English Revolution of Charles the First’s time; this is what makes it a more spiritual event than our Re? volution, an event of much more powerful and world? wide interest, though practically less successful; it appeals to an order of ideas which are universal, certain, permanent. 1789 asked of a thing, Is it rational? 1642 asked of a thing, Is it legal? o r, when it went furthest, Is it according to conscience? This is the English fashion; a fashion to be treated, within its own sphere, with the highest respect; for its success, within its own sphere, has been prodigious. But what is law in one place, is not law in another; what is law here to? day, is not law even here tomorrow; and as for conscience, what is binding on one man’s conscience is not binding on another’s; the old woman who threw her stool at the head of the surpliced minister in St. Giles’s Church at Edinburgh obeyed an impulse to which millions of the human race may be permitted to remain strangers. But the pre? criptions of reason are absolute, unchanging, of universal validity; to count by tens is the simplest way of counting,* *A writer in the Saturday Review, who has offered me some counsels about style for which I am truly grateful, suggests that this should stand as follows: To take as your unit an established base of notation, ten being given as the base of notation, is, except for numbers under t wenty, the simplest way of counting. I tried it so, but I assure him, without jealousy, that the more I looked at his improved way of putting the thing, the less I liked it. It seems to me that the maxim, in this shape, would never make the tour of a world, where most of us are plain easy? spoken people. He forgets that he is a reasoner, a member of a school, a disciple of the great Bentham, and that he naturally talks in the scientific way of his school, with exact accuracy, philosophic propriety; I am a mere solitary wanderer in search of the light, and I talk an artless, un? studied, every? day, familiar language. But, after all, this is the language of the mass of the world. The mass of Frenchmen who felt the force of that prescription of the reason which my reviewer, in his purified language, states thus: to count by tens has the advantage of taking as your unit the base of an * that is a proposition of which every one, from here to the Antipodes, feels the force; at least, I should say so, if we did not live in a country where it is not impossible that any morning we may find a letter in the Times declaring that a decimal coinage is an absurdity. That a whole nation should have been pene? trated with an enthusiasm for pure reason, and with an ardent zeal for making its prescriptions triumph, is a very * established system of notation, certainly rendered this, for themselves, in some such loose language as mine. My point is that they felt the force of a prescription of the reason so strongly that they legislated in accordance with it. They may have been wrong in so doing; they may have foolishly omitted to take other prescriptions of reason into account; he non? English world does not seem to think so, but let that pass; what I say is, that by legislating as they did they showed a keen susceptibility to purely rational, intellectual considerations. On the other hand, does my reviewer say that we keep our mone? tary system unchanged because our nation has grasped the intellec? tual proposition which he puts, in his masterly way, thus : {{â€Å"}}to count by twelves has the advantage of taking as your unit a number in itself fa r more convenient than ten for that purpose? Surely not; but because our system is there, and we are too practical a people to trouble ourselves about its intellectual aspect. To take a second case. The French Revolutionists abolished the sale of offices, because they thought (my reviewer will kindly allow me to put the thing in my imperfect, popular language) the sale of offices a gross anomaly. We still sell commissions in the army. I have no doubt my reviewer, with his scientific powers, can easily invent some beautiful formula to make us appear to be doing this on the purest philosophical principles; the rinciples of Hobbes, Locke, Bentham, Mr. Mill, Mr. Bain, and himself, their THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 4 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME worthy disciple. But surely the plain unscientific account of the matter is, that we have the anomalous practice (he will allow it is, in itself, an anomalous practice? ) established, and that (in the words of s enatorial wisdom already quoted) â€Å"for a thing to be an anomaly we consider to be no objection to it whatever. † emarkable thing, when we consider how little of mind, or anything so worthy and quickening as mind, comes into the motives which alone, in general, impel great masses of men. In spite of the extravagant direction given to this enthusiasm, in spite of the crimes and follies in which it lost itself, the French Revolution derives, from the force, truth, and universality of the ideas which it took for its law, and from the passion with which it could inspire a multitude for these ideas, a unique and still living power; it is, it will probably long remain, he greatest, the most animating event in history. And, as no sincere passion for the things of the mind, even though it turn out in many respects an unfortunate passion, is ever quite thrown away and quite barren of good, France has reaped from hers one fruit, the natural and legitimate fruit, though not precisely the grand fruit she expected; she is the country in Europe where the people is most alive. But the mania for giving an immediate political and practical application to all these fine ideas of the reason was fatal. Here an Englishman is in his element: on this theme we can all go on for hours. And all we are in the habit of saying on it has undoubtedly a great deal of truth. Ideas cannot be too much prized in and for themselves, cannot be too much lived with; but to transport them abruptly into the world of politics and practice, violently to revolutionise this world to their bidding, that is quite another thing. There is the world of ideas and there is the world of practice; the French are often for suppressing the one and the English the other; but neither is to be suppressed. A member of the House of Commons said to me the other day: â€Å"That a thing is an anomaly, I consider to be no objection to it what? ever. † I venture to think he was wrong; that a thing is an anomaly is an objection to it, but absolutely and in the sphere of ideas: it is not necessarily, under such and such circumstances, or at such and such a moment, an objection to it in the sphere of politics and practice. Joubert has said beautifully: â€Å"C’est la force et le droit qui reglent toutes choses dans le monde; la force en attendant le droit. † Force and right are the governors of this world; force till right is ready. Force till right is ready; and till right is ready, force, the existing order of things, is justified, is the legitimate ruler. But right is something moral, and implies inward recognition, free assent of the will; we are not ready for right, right, so far as we are concerned, is not ready, until we have attained this sense of seeing it and willing it. The way in which for us it may change and transform force, the existing order of things, and become, in its turn, the legitimate ruler of the world, will depend on the way in which, when our time comes, we see it and will it. Therefore for other people enamoured of their own newly discerned right, to attempt to impose it upon us as ours, and violently to substitute their right for our force, is an act of tyranny, and to be resisted. It sets at nought the second great half of our maxim, force till right is ready. This was the grand error of the French Revolution, and its movement of ideas, by quitting the intellectual sphere and rushing furiously into the political sphere, ran, in? eed, a prodigious and memorable course, but produced no such intellectual fruit as the movement of ideas of the Renaissance, and created, in opposition to itself, what I may call an epoch of concentration. The great force of that epoch of concentration was England; and the great voice of that epoch of concentration was Burke. It is the fashion to treat Burke’s writings on the French Revolution as superannuated and conquered by the event; as the eloquent but unphilosophical tirades of bigotry and prejudice. I will not deny that they are often disfigured by the violence and passion of the moment, and that in some directions Burke’s view was bounded, and his observation therefore at fault; but on the whole, and for those who can make the needful corrections, what distinguishes these writings is their profound, permanent, fruitful, philosophical truth; they contain the true philosophy of an epoch of concentration, dissipate the heavy atmosphere which its own nature is apt to engender round it, and make its resistance rational instead of mechanical. But Burke is so great because, almost alone in England, he brings thought to bear upon politics, he saturates politics with thought; it is his accident that his ideas were at the service of an epoch of concentration, not of an epoch of expansion; it is his characteristic that he so lived by ideas, and had such a source of them welling up within him, that he could float even an epoch of con? centration and English Tory politics with them. It does not hurt him that Dr. Price and the Liberals were enraged with him; it does not even hurt him that George the Third THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 5 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME and the Tories were enchanted with him. His greatness is that he lived in a world which neither English Liberal? ism nor English Toryism is apt to enter; the world of ideas, not the world of catchwords and party habits. So far is it from being really true of him that he â€Å"to party gave up what was meant for mankind,† that at the very end of his fierce struggle with the French Revolution, after all his invectives against its false pretensions, hollow? ess, and madness, with his sincere conviction of its mischievousness, he can close a memorandum on the best means of combating it, some of the last pages he ever wrote, the Thoughts on French Affairs, in December, 1791, with these striking words: â€Å"The evil is stated, in my opinion, as it exists. The remedy must be where power, wisdom, and information, I hope, are more united with good intentions than they can be with me. I have done with this subject, I believe, for ever. It has given me many anxious moments for the last two years. If a great change is to be made in human affairs, the minds of men be fitted to it; the general opinions and feelings will draw that way. Every fear, every hope will forward it; and then they who persist in opposing this mighty current in human affairs, will appear rather to resist the decrees of Providence itself, than the mere designs of men. They will not be resolute and firm, but perverse and obstinate. † That return of Burke upon himself has always seemed to me one of the finest things in English literature, or indeed, in any literature. That is what I call living by ideas; when one side of a question has long had your earnest support, when all your feelings are engaged, when you hear all round you no language but one, when your party talks this language like a steam engine and can imagine no other, still to be able to think, still to be irresistibly carried, if so it be, by the current of thought to the opposite side of the question, and, like Balaam, to be unable to speak anything but what the Lord has put in your mouth. I know nothing more striking, and I must add that I know nothing more un? English. For the Englishman in general is like my friend the Member of Parliament, and believes, point? blank, that for a thing to be an anomaly is absolutely no objection to it whatever. He is like the Lord Auckland of Burke’s day, who, in a memorandum on the French Revolution, talks of â€Å"certain miscreants, assuming the name of philosophers, who have presumed themselves capable of establishing a new system of society. The Englishman has been called a political animal, and he values what is political and practical so much that ideas easily become objects of dislike in his eyes, and thinkers â€Å"miscreants,† because ideas and thinkers have rashly meddled with politics and practice. This would be all very well if the dislike and neglect confined themselves to ideas transported out of their own sphere, and meddling rashly with practice; but they are inevitably extended to ideas as such, and t o the whole life of intelligence; practice is everything, a free play of the mind is nothing. The notion of the free play of the mind upon all subjects being a pleasure in itself, being an object of desire, being an essential provider of elements without which a nation’s spirit, whatever compensations it may have for them, must, in the long run, die of inanition, hardly enters into an Englishman’s thoughts. It {{is}} [[[it]]] noticeable that the word curiosity, which in other languages is used in a good sense, to mean, as a high and fine quality of man’s nature, just this disinterested love of a free play of the mind on all subjects, for its own sake, t is noticeable, I say, that this word has in our language no sense of the kind, no sense but a rather bad and disparaging one. But criticism, real criticism, is essentially the exercise of this very quality; it obeys an instinct prompting it to try to know the best that is known and thought in the world, irrespectively of practice, politics, and everything of the kind; and to value knowledge and thought as they approach this best, without the intrusion of any other considerations whatever. This is an instinct for which there is, I think, little original sympathy in the practical English nature, and what there was of it has undergone a long benumbing period of blight and suppression in the epoch of concentration which followed the French Revolution. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 6 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME But epochs of concentration cannot well endure for ever; epochs of expansion, in the due course of things, follow them. Such an epoch of expansion seems to be opening in this country. In the first place all danger of a hostile forcible pressure of foreign ideas upon our practice has long disappeared; like the traveller in the fable, therefore, we begin to wear our cloak a little more loosely. Then, with a long peace, the ideas of Europe steal gradually and amicably in, and mingle, though in infinitesimally small quantities at a time, with our own notions. Then, too, in spite of all that is said about the absorbing and brutalising influence of our passionate material progress, it seems to me indisputable that this progress is likely, though not certain, to lead in the end to an apparition of intellectual life; and that man, after he has made himself perfectly comfortable and has now to determine what to do with himself next, may begin to remember that he has a mind, and that the mind may be made the source of great pleasure. I grant it is mainly the privilege of faith, at present, to discern this end to our railways, our business, and our fortune? aking; but we shall see if, here as elsewhere, faith is not in the end the true prophet. Our ease, our travelling, and our un? bounded liberty to hold just as hard and securely as we please to the practice to which our notions have given birth, all tend to beget an inclination to deal a little more freely with these notions themselves, to canvass them a little, to penetrate a little into thei r real nature. Flutterings of curiosity, in the foreign sense of the word, appear amongst us, and it is in these that criticism must look to find its account. Criticism first; a time of true creative activity, perhaps, which, as I have said, must inevitably be preceded amongst us by a time of criticism, hereafter, when criticism has done its work. It is of the last importance that English criticism should clearly discern what rule for its course, in order to avail itself of the field now opening to it, and to pro? duce fruit for the future, it ought to take. The rule may be summed up in one word, disinterestedness. And how is criticism to show disinterestedness? By keeping aloof from practice; by resolutely following the law of its own nature, which is to be a free play of the mind on all subjects which it touches; by steadily refusing to lend itself to any of those ulterior, political, practical con? siderations about ideas which plenty of people will be sure to attach to them, which perhaps ought often to be attached to them, which in this country at any rate are certain to be attached to them quite sufficiently, but which criticism has really nothing to do with. Its busi? ess is, as I have said, simply to know the best that is known and thought in the world, and by in its turn making this known, to create a current of true and fresh ideas. Its business is to do this with inflexible honesty, with due ability; but its business is to do no more, and to leave alone all questions of practical consequences and applications, questions which will never fail to have due prominence given to them. Else criticism, besides being really false to its ow n nature, merely continues in the old rut which it has hitherto followed in this country, and will certainly miss the chance now given to it. For what is at present the bane of criticism in this country? It is that practical considerations cling to it and stifle it; it subserves interests not its own; our organs of criticism are organs of men and parties having practical ends to serve, and with them those practical ends are the first thing and the play of mind the second; so much play of mind as is compatible with the prosecution of those prac? tical ends is all that is wanted. An organ like the Revue des Deux Mondes, having for its main function to under? tand and utter the best that is known and thought in the world, existing, it may be said, as just an organ for a` free play of the mind, we have not; but we have the Edinburgh Review, existing as an organ of the old Whigs, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that; we have the Quarterly Review, existing as an organ of the Tories, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that; we have the British Quarterly Review, exist? ng as an organ of the polit ical Dissenters, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that; we have the Times, existing as an organ of the common, satisfied, well? to? do Englishman, and for as much play of mind as may suit its being that. And so on through all the various fractions, political and religious, of our society; every fraction has, as such, its organ of criticism, but the notion of combining all fractions in the common pleasure of a free disinterested play of mind meets with no favour. Directly this play of mind wants to have more scope, and to forget the pressure of practical considerations a little, it is checked, it is made to feel the chain; we saw this the other day in the extinction, so much to be regretted, of the Home and Foreign Review; perhaps in no organ of criticism in this country was there so much knowledge, so much play of mind; but these could not save it; the Dublin Review subordinates play of mind to the prac? tical business of English and Irish Catholicism, and lives. It must needs be that men should act in sects and par? ies, that each of these sects and parties should have its organ, and should make this organ subserve the interests of its action; but it would be well, too, that there should be a criticism, not the minister of these interests, not their enemy, but absolutely and entirely THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 7 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME independent of them. No other criticism will ever attain any real authority or make any real way towards its end, the creating a current of true and fresh ideas. It is because criticism has so little kept in the pure intellectual sphere, has so little detached itself from practice, has been so directly polemical and controver? sial, that it has so ill accomplished, in this country, its best spiritual work; which is to keep man from a self? satisfaction which is retarding and vulgarising, to lead him towards perfection, by making his mind dwell upon what is excellent in itself, and the absolute beauty and fitness of things. A polemical practical criticism makes men blind even to the ideal imperfection of their prac? ice, makes them willingly assert its ideal perfection, in order the better to secure it against attack; and clearly this is narrowing and baneful for them. If they were reassured on the practical side, speculative considera? tions of ideal perfection they might be brought to entertain, and their spiritual horizon would thus gra? dually widen. Adderley says to the Warwickshire farmers: â€Å"Talk of the improvement of breed! Why, t he race we ourselves represent, the men and women, the old Anglo? Saxon race, are the best breed in the whole world. †¦ The absence of a too enervating climate, too un? clouded skies, and a too luxurious nature, has produced so vigorous a race of people, and has rendered us so superior to all the world. † Mr. Roebuck says to the Sheffield cutlers: â€Å"I look around me and ask what is the state of England? Is not property safe? Is not every man able to say what he likes? Can you not walk from one end of England to the other in perfect security? I ask you whether, the world over or in past history, there is any? thing like it? Nothing. I pray that our unrivalled happiness may last. â€Å" Now obviously there is a peril for poor human nature in words and thoughts of such exuberant self? satisfaction, until we find ourselves safe in the streets of the Celestial City. â€Å"Das wenige verschwindet leicht deln Blicke Der vorwarts sieht, wie viel noch ubrig bleibt † says Goethe; the little that is done seems nothing when we look forward and see how much we have yet to do. Clearly this is a better line of reflection for weak humanity, so long as it remains on this earthly field of labour and trial. But neither Mr. Adderley nor Mr. Roebuck are by nature inaccessible to considerations of this sort. They only lose sight of them owing to the controversial life we all lead, and the practical form which all specu? lation takes with us. They have in view opponents whose aim is not ideal, but practical, and in their zeal to uphold their own practice against these innovators, they go so far as even to attribute to this practice an ideal perfection. Somebody has been wanting to introduce a six? pound franchise, or to abolish church? rates, or to collect agricultural statistics by force, or to diminish local self? government. How natural, in reply to such pro? osals, very likely improper or ill? timed, to go a little beyond the mark, and to say stoutly: â€Å"Such a race of people as we stand, so superior to all the world! The old Anglo? Saxon race, the best breed in the whole world! I pray that our unrivalled happiness may last! I ask you whether, the world over or in past history, there is anything like it! † And so long as criticism answers this dithyramb by insisting that the old Anglo? Saxon race would be still more superior to all others if it had no church? rates, or that our unrivalled happiness would last yet longer with a six? ound franchise, so long will the strain, â€Å"The best breed in the whole world! † swell louder and louder, everything ideal and refining will be lost out of sight, and both the assailed and their critics will remain in a sphere, to say the truth, perfectly unvital, a sphere in which spiritual progression is impossible. But let criticism leave church? rates and the franchise alone, and in the most candid spirit, without a single lurking thought of practical innovation, confront with our dithyramb this paragraph on which I stumbled in a news? paper soon after reading Mr. Roebuck: A THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 8 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME shocking child murder has just been committed at Nottingham. A girl named Wragg left the workhouse there on Saturday morning with her young illegi timate child. The child was soon afterwards found dead on Mapperly Hills, having been strangled. Wragg is in custody. † Nothing but that; but, in juxtaposition with the absolute eulogies of Mr. Adderley and Mr. Roebuck, how elo? quent, how suggestive are those few lines! † Our old Anglo? Saxon breed, the best in the whole world! how much that is harsh and ill? favoured there is in this best! Wragg! If we are to talk of ideal perfection, of â€Å"the best in the whole world,† has anyone reflected what a touch of grossness in our race, what an original short? coming in the more delicate spiritual perceptions, is shown by the natural growth amongst us of such hideous names, Higginbottom, Stiggins, Bugg! In Ionia and Attica they were luckier in this respect than â€Å"the best race in the world;† by the Ilissus there was no Wragg, poor thing! And â€Å"our unrivalled happiness;† hat an element of grimness, bareness, and hideousness mixes with it and blu rs it; the workhouse, the dismal Map? perly Hills, how dismal those who have seen them will remember; the gloom, the smoke, the cold, the strangled illegitimate child! † I ask you whether, the world over or in past history, there is anything like it? † Perhaps not, one is inclined to answer; but at any rate, in that case, the world is very much to be pitied. And the final touch, short, bleak, and inhuman: Wragg is in custody. The sex lost in the confusion of our unrivalled happiness; or, hall I say? the superfluous Christian name lopped off by the straightforward vigour of our old Anglo? Saxon breed! There is profit for the spirit in such contrasts as this; criticism serves the cause of perfection by esta? blishing them. By eluding sterile conflict, by refusing to remain in the sphere where alone narrow and relative conceptions have any worth and validity, criticism may diminish its momentary importance, but only in this way has it a chance of gaining admittance for thos e wider and more perfect conceptions to which all its duty is really owed. Mr. Roebuck will have a poor opinion of an adversary who replies to his defiant songs of triumph only by murmuring under his breath, Wragg is in custody; but in no other way will these songs of triumph be induced gradually to moderate themselves, to get rid of what in them is excessive and offensive, and to fall into a softer and truer key. It will be said that it is a very subtle and indirect action which I am thus prescribing for criticism, and that by embracing in this manner the Indian virtue of detach? ment and abandoning the sphere of practical life, it condemns itself to a slow and obscure work. Slow and obscure it may be, but it is the only proper work of criticism. The mass of mankind will never have any ardent zeal for seeing things as they are; very inadequate ideas will always satisfy them. On these inadequate ideas reposes, and must repose, the general practice of the world. That is as much as saying that whoever sets himself to see things as they are will find himself one of a very small circle; but it is only by this small circle resolutely doing its own work that adequate ideas will ever get current at all. The rush and roar of practical life will always have a dizzying and attracting effect upon the most collected spectator, and tend to draw him into its vortex; most of all will this be the case where that life is so powerful as it is in England. But it is only by remaining collected, and refusing to lend himself to the point of view of the practical man, that the critic can do the practical man any service; and it is only by the greatest sincerity in pursuing his own course, and by at last convincing even the practical man of his sincerity, that he can escape misunderstandings which perpetually threaten him. For the practical man is not apt for fine distinctions, and yet in these distinctions truth and the highest culture greatly find their account. But it is not easy to lead a practical man, unless you reassure him as to your prac? tical intentions you have no chance of leading him, to see that a thing which he has always been used to look at from one side only, which he greatly values, and which, looked at from that side, more than deserves, perhaps, all the prizing and admiring which he bestows upon it, hat this thing, looked at from another side, may appear much less beneficent and beautiful, and yet retain all its claims to our practical allegiance. Where shall we find lan? guage innocent enough, how shall we make the spotless purity of our intentions evident enough, to enable us to say to the political Englishman that the British Constitu? tion itself, which, seen from the practical side, looks such a magnificent organ of progress and virtue, seen from the speculative side, with it s compromises, its love of facts, its horror of theory, its studied avoidance of clear thoughts, hat, seen from this side, our august Consti? tution sometimes looks, forgive me, shade of Lord Somers! a colossal machine for the manufacture of Philistines? How is Cobbett to say this and not be mis? understood, blackened as he is with the smoke of a life? long conflict in the field of political practice? how is Mr. Carlyle to say it and not be misunderstood, after his THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 9 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME furious raid into this field with his Latter? ay Pamphlets how is Mr. Ruskin, after his pugnacious political economy? I say, the critic must keep out of the region of immediate practice in the political, social, humanitarian sphere, if he wants to make a beginning for that more free specu? lative treatment of things, which may perhaps one day make its benefits felt even in this sphere, but in a natural and thence irresistible man ner. Do what he will, however, the critic will still remain exposed to frequent misunderstandings, and nowhere so much as in this country. For here people are particu? larly indisposed even to comprehend that without this free disinterested treatment of things, truth and the highest culture are out of the question. So immersed are they in practical life, so accustomed to take all their notions from this life and its processes, that they are apt to think that truth and culture themselves can be reached by the processes of this life, and that it is an impertinent singularity to think of reaching them in any other. â€Å"We are all terr? ilii,† cries their eloquent advocate; â€Å"all Philistines together. Away with the notion of proceed? ing by any other course than the course dear to the Philistines; let us have a social movement, let us organise and combine a party to pursue truth and new thought, let us call it the liberal party, and let us all stick to each other, and back each other up. Let us have no nonsense about independent criticism, and intellectual delicacy, and the few and the many; don’t let u s trouble our? elves about foreign thought; we shall invent the whole thing for ourselves as we go along; if one of us speaks well, applaud him; if one of us speaks ill, applaud him too; we are all in the same movement, we are all liberals, we are all in pursuit of truth. † In this way the pursuit of truth becomes really a social, practical, pleasureable affair, almost requiring a chairman, a secretary, and advertisements; with the excitement of an occasional scandal, with a little resistance to give the happy sense of difficulty overcome; but, in general, plenty of bustle and very little thought. To act is so easy, as Goethe says; to think is so hard! It is true that the critic has many temptations to go with the stream, to make one of the party of movement, one of these terr? filii; it seems ungracious to refuse to be a terr? filius, when so many excellent people are; but the critic’s duty is to refuse, or, if resistance is vain, at least to cry with Obermann: Perissons en resistant. How serious a matter it is to try and resist, I had ample opportunity of experiencing when I ventured some time ago to criticise the celebrated first volume of Bishop Colenso. The echoes of the storm which was then raised I still, from time to time, hear grumbling round me. That storm arose out of a misunderstanding almost inevitable. It is a result of no little culture to attain to a clear perception that science and religion are two wholly different things; the multitude will for ever con? fuse them, but happily that is of no great real im? portance, for while the multitude imagines its elf to live by its false science, it does really live by its true religion. Dr. Colenso, however, in his first volume did all he could to strengthen the confusion, and to make it dangerous. * So sincere is my dislike to all personal attack and controversy, that I abstain from reprinting, at this distance of time from the occasion which called them forth, the essays in which I criticised the Bishop of Natal’s book; I feel bound, however, after all that has passed, to make here a final declaration of my sincere impenitence for having published them. The Bishop of Natal’s subsequent volumes are in great measure free from the crying fault of his first; he has at length succeeded in more clearly separating, in his own thoughts, the idea of science from the idea of religion; his mind appears to be opening as he goes along, and he may perhaps end by becoming a useful biblical critic, though never, I think, of the first order. Still, in here taking leave of him at the moment when he is pub? ishing, for popular use, a cheap edition of his work, I cannot forbear repeating yet once more, for his benefit and that of his readers, this sentence from my original remarks upon him: There is truth of science and truth of religion; truth of science does not become truth of religion till it is made religious. And I will add: Let us have all the science there is from the men of science; from the men of religion let us have religion. THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 10 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME It has been said I make it â€Å"a crime against literary criticism * He did this with the best intentions, I freely admit, and with the most candid ignorance that this was the natural effect of what he was doing; but, says Joubert, â€Å"Igno? ance, which in matters of morals extenuates the crime, in itself, in intellectual matters, a crime of the first order. † I criticised Bishop Colenso’s speculative confusion. Im? mediately there was a cry raised: â€Å"What is this? here a liberal attacking a liberal. Do not you belong to the movement? are not you a friend of truth? Is not Bishop Colenso in pursuit of truth? then speak with proper respect of his book. Dr. Stanley is another friend of truth, and you speak with proper respect of his book; why make these invidious differences? both books are excellent, admirable, liberal; Bishop Colenso’s perhaps the most so, because it is the boldest, and will have the best practical consequences for the liberal cause. Do you want to encourage to the attack of a brother liberal his, and your, and our implacable enemies, the Church and State Review or the Record, the High Church rhinoceros and the Evangelical hy? na? Be silent, therefore; or rather speak, speak as loud as ever you can, and go into ecstasies over the eighty and odd pigeons. † But criticism cannot follow this coarse and indiscriminate method. It is unfortunately possible for a man in pur? suit of truth to write a book which reposes upon a false conception. Even the practical consequences of a book are to genuine criticism no recommendation of it, if the book is, in the highest sense, blundering. I see that a *and the higher culture to attempt to inform the ignorant. † Need I point out that the ignorant are not informed by being confirmed in a confusion? ady who herself, too, is in pursuit of truth, and who writes with great ability, but a little too much, perhaps, under the influence of the practical spirit of the English liberal movement, classes Bishop Colenso’s book and M. Renan’s together, in her survey of the religious state of Europe, as facts of the same order, works, both of them, of â€Å"great i mportance;† â€Å"great ability, power and skill;† Bishop Colenso’s, perhaps, the most powerful; at least, Miss Cobbe gives special expression to her gratitude that to Bishop Colenso â€Å"has been given the strength to grasp, and the courage to teach truths of such deep import. In the same way, more than one popular writer has compared him to Luther. Now it is just this kind of false estimate which the critical spirit is, it seems to me, bound to resist. It is really the strongest possible proof of the low ebb at which, in England, the critical spirit is, that while the critical hit in the religious literature of Germany is Dr. Strauss’s book, in that of France M. Renan’s book, the book of Bishop Colenso is the critical hit in the religious literature of England. Bishop Colenso’s book reposes on a total misconcep? ion of the essential elements of the religious problem, as that problem is now presented for solution. To cri? ticism, therefore , which seeks to have the best that is known and thought on this problem, it is, however well meant, of no importance whatever. M. Renan’s book attempts a new synthesis of the elements furnished to us by the four Gospels. It attempts, in my opinion, a synthesis, perhaps premature, perhaps impossible, cer? tainly not successful. Up to the present time, at any rate, we must acquiesce in Fleury’s sentence on such recastings of the Gospel story : Quiconque s’imagine la pouvoir mieux ecrire, ne l’entend pas. M. Renan had himself passed by anticipation a like sentence on his own work, when he said: â€Å"If a new presentation of the character of Jesus were offered to me, I would not have it; its very clearness would be, in my opinion, the best proof of its insufficiency. † His friends may with perfect justice rejoin that at the sight of the Holy Land, and of the actual scene of the Gospel? story, all the current of M. Renan’s thoughts may have naturally changed, and a new casting of that story irresistibly suggested itself to him; and that this is just a case for applying Cicero’s maxim: Change of mind is not inconsistency emo doctus unquam mutationem consilii inconstantiam dixit esse. Nevertheless, for criticism, M. Renan’s first thought must still be the truer one, as long as his new casting so fails more fully to commend itself, more fully (to use Coleridge’s happy phrase about the Bible) to find us. Still M. Renan’s attempt is, for criticism, of the most real interest and importance, since, with all its difficulty, a fresh synthesis of the New Testament data, ot a making war on them, in Voltaire’s fashion, not a leaving them out of mind, in the world’s fashion, but the putting a new construction upon them, the taking them from under the old, adoptive, traditional, un? spiritual point of view and placing them under a new one, is the very essence of the religious problem, as now presented; and only by efforts in this direction can it receive a solution. Again, in the same spirit in which she judges Bishop Colenso, Miss Cobbe, like so many earnest liberals of our THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 11 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME practical race, both here and in America, herself sets vigorously about a positive reconstruction of religion, about making a religion of the future out of hand, or at least setting about making it; we must not rest, she and they are always thinking and saying, in negative criti? cism, we must be creative and constructive; hence we have such works as her recent Religious Duty, and works still more considerable, perhaps, by others, which will be in everyone’s mind. These works often have much ability; they often spring out of sincere convictions, and a sincere wish to do good; and they sometimes, perhaps, do good. Their fault is (if I may be permitted to say so) one which they have in common with the British College of Health, in the New Road. Everyone knows the British College of Health; it is that building with the lion and the statue of the Goddess Hygeia before it; at least, I am sure about the lion, though I am not absolutely certain about the Goddess Hygeia. This building does credit, perhaps, to the resources of Dr. Morrison and his disciples; but it falls a good deal short of one’s idea of what a British College of Health ought to be. In England, where we hate public inter? ference and love individual enterprise, we have a whole crop of places like the British College of Health; the grand name without the grand thing. Unluckily, credit? able to individual enterprise as they are, they tend to impair our taste by making us forget what more grandiose, noble, or beautiful character properly belongs to a public institution. The same may be said of the religions of the future of Miss Cobbe and others. Creditable, like the British College of Health, to the resources of their authors, they yet tend to make us forget what more grandiose, noble, or beautiful character properly belongs to religious constructions. The historic religions, with all their faults, have had this; it certainly belongs to the religious sentiment, when it truly flowers, to have this; and we impoverish our spirit if we allow a religion of the future without it. What then is the duty of criticism here? To take the practical point of view, to applaud the liberal movement and all its works, its New Road religions of the future into the bargain, or their general utility’s sake? By no means; but to be perpetually dis? satisfied with these works, while they perpetually fall short of a high and perfect ideal. For criticism, these are elementary laws; but they never can be popular, and in this country they have been very little followed, and one meets with immense obstacles in following them. That is a reason for asserting them again and again. Criticism must maintain its independence of the practical spirit and its aims. Even with well? meant efforts of the practical spirit it must express dissatisfaction, if in the sphere of the ideal they seem impoverishing and limiting. It must not hurry on to the goal because of its practical importance. It must be patient, and know how to wait; and flexible, and know how to attach itself to things and how to withdraw from them. It must be apt to study and praise elements that for the fulness of spiritual perfection are wanted, even though they belong to a power which in the prac? tical sphere may be maleficent. It must be apt to discern the spiritual shortcomings or illusions of powers that in the practical sphere may be beneficent. And this with? ut any notion of favouring or injuring, in the practical sphere, one power or the other; without any notion of playing off, in this sphere, one power against the other. When one looks, for instance, at the English Divorce Court, an institution which perhaps has its practical conveniences, but which in the ideal sphere is so hideous;* *A critic, already quoted, says that I have no right, on my own principles, to â€Å"object to practical measures on theoretical grounds,à ¢â‚¬  and that only â€Å"when a man has got a theory which will fully explain all the duties of the legislator on the matter of marriage, will he have a right to abuse the Divorce Court. In short, he wants me to produce a plan for a new and improved Divorce Court, before I call the present one hideous. But God forbid that I should thus enter into competition with the Lord Chancellor! It is just this invasion of the practical sphere which is really against my principles; the taking a practical measure into the world of ideas, and seeing how it looks there, is, on the other hand, just what I am recom? mending. It is because we have not been conversant enough with ideas that our practice now falls so short; it is only by becoming more conversant with them that we shall make it better. Our present Divorce Court is not the result of any legislator’s meditations on the subject of marriage; rich people had an anomalous privilege of getting divorced; privileges are odious, and we said everybody should have the same chance. There was no meditation about THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME 12 THE FUNCTION OF CRITICISM AT THE PRESENT TIME marriage here; that was just the mischief. If my practical critic will but himself accompany me, for a little while, into the despised world of ideas; f, renouncing any attempt to patch hastily up, with a noble disdain for transcendentalists, our present Divorce law, he will but allow his mind to dwell a little, first on the Catholic idea of marriage, which exhibits marriage as indissoluble, and then upon that Protestant idea of marriage, which exhibits it as a union terminable by mutual consent, if he will meditate well on these, and afterwards on the thought of what married life, according to its idea, really is, of wh at family life really is, of what social life really is, and national life, and public morals, he will find, fter a while, I do assure him, the whole state of his* an institution which neither makes divorce impossible nor makes it decent, which allows a man to get rid of his wife, or a wife of her husband, but makes them drag one another first, for the public edification, through a mire of unutterable infamy, when one looks at this charming institution, I say, with its crowded benches, its newspaper? reports, and its money? compensations, this institution in which the gross unregenerate British Philis? tine has indeed stamped an image of himself, one may be permitted to find the marriage? heory of Catholicism refreshing and elevating. Or when Protestantism, in virtue of its supposed rational and intellectual origin, gives the law to criticism too magisterially, criticism may and must remind it that its pretensions, in this respect, are illusive and do it harm; that the Reformation was a moral rather than an intellectual event; that Luther’s theory of grace no more exactly reflects the mind of the spirit than Bossuet’s philosophy of history reflects it; and that there is no more antecedent probability of the Bishop of Durham’s stock of ideas being agreeable to? erfect reason than of Pope Pius the Ninth’s. But criticism will not on that account forget the achievements of Protestantism in the practical and moral sphere; nor that, even in the intellectual sphere, Protestantism, *spirit quite changed; the Divorce Court will then seem to him, if he looks at it, strangely hideous; and he will at the same time discover in himself, as the fruit of his inward discipline, lights and resources for making it better, of which now he does not dream. He must make haste, though, for the condition of his â€Å"practical measure† is getting awkward; even the British Philistine begins to have qualms as he looks at his offspring; even his â€Å"thrice? battered God of Palestine† is beginning to roll its eyes convulsively. though in a blind and stumbling manner, carried for? ward the Renaissance, while Catholicism threw itself violently across its path. I lately heard a man of thought and energy contrasting the want of ardour and movement which he now found amongst young men in this country with what he re? membered in his own youth, twenty years ago. â€Å"What reformers we were then! he exclaimed; â€Å"what a zeal we had! how we canvassed every institution in Church and State, and were prepared to remodel them all on first principles! † He was inclined to regret, as a spiritual flagging, the lull which he saw. I am disposed rather to regard it as a pause in which the turn to a new mode of spiritual progress is being accomplished. Everything was long seen, by the young and ar How to cite The Function of Criticism at the Present Time, Essay examples

Summer Twilight for Canadian Woman Studies -myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theSummer Twilight for Canadian Woman Studies. Answer: Sharon Thesen was born in 1946, and spend most of her childhood in a small town of Canada. She is a poet, anthologist and editor; she had taught several other subjects in one of the well known university of Vancouver. Thesen has issued several books. She received award on one of her book of poems in the year 2000. In late 70s and early 80s she was an assistant as a poetry editor to a famous poet. (Boughn, 2013) Summer Twilight by Sharon Thesen is a short and small poem that can be explicated by an adjacent model to express the meaning of the poem. The poem is express in a serene and rest manner like a sunset. It can be said that the theme of the poem taken by the narrator is a sunset. Thesen uses colorful make-believe to bring out the meaning of the poem. The poet uses colorful imagination to express the meaning of the poem. The poem is quiet and peaceful like dusk is the overall pitch of the poem. The poem starts and ends with twin verses and the middle stanza include three lines (Leggott, 2013). The poem as such has no rhyming outline; in order to express the first stanza the poet does not used any rhythmic sketch; it is a poem with an open-stanza. The first stanzas deal the color as listed by Thesen, touches the mind of the narrator, rather than merely uttering the color as harsh and ignites. The sky has a band of color with sapphire and purplish red pigment azure and crimson; these colo rs are blossoming and alive. The narrator describes the colors in order to help the person who reads to see what the storyteller is bearing in mind. The narrator used the color bright blue to describe the cloudless sky. (Vanstone, 2013) In the second stanza, Sharon Thesen spread out and expresses the imagination on considering what can be seen ahead of the theme of the poem that is sunset. Here the narrators mind is confine by the city lights; as the narrators attention is towards the city lights therefore the adjacent are in an unhurried method. In the mid-thought the narrator ends the stanza all of a sudden; a loner cloud the narrator end the stanza abruptly in the mid-thought; narrator at the end summons it so that the reader can continue. As the poem progress further the main prominence seems to be the cloud; almost like a high point thought the cloud is hassled and the narrator leaves it hanging. In the beginning of the third verse it is thought that the narrator without any setback teaches about the rise of the earth surface; the poet instruct about the hills; it seems that the poet is entirely devour in the magnificent adjoining. In the last verse the readers comprehend that the poet was not referring the hil l but he was referring to the clouds.(McMohan, 2013) References Boughn, Michael. "Racing for the Prize."Canadian Literature219 (2013): 193. Leggott, Michele.Mirabile dictu. Auckland University Press, 2013. McMahon, Fiona. "Robert Kroetsch and Archival Culture in the Canadian Long Poem."tudes canadiennes/Canadian Studies. Revue interdisciplinaire des tudes canadiennes en France74 (2013): 73-85. Vanstone, Gail. "Miriam Waddington: Collected Works."Canadian Woman Studies8.3 (1987).

Clinton Essays - Rodham Family, Lewinsky Scandal, Bill Clinton

Clinton Bill Clinton was born on August 19, 1946 in a town called Hope, with the birth name William Jefferson Blythe. His birth father died in a car accident just three months before his birth. When he was born his mother sent him to live with his grandparents, due to the fact that because of the current economy she couldn't possibly support a child by herself. He lived with his grandparents for two years while his mother was away at nursing school in New Orleans trying to advance her career. His grandparents tried to instill in him strong southern Baptist principles and a desire to get a good education. When Bill was four his mother returned to Hope where she met and married Roger Clinton Sr.. A few years later Bill and his family moved to Hot Springs, where despite his Baptist upbringing Bill attended a catholic school. When he was nine years old he changed schools and went to Ramble Elementary. When Bill was ten Roger Clinton Jr. was born, and at age fifteen Bill took his step fathers last name in hopes of helping his mothers troubled relationship. While Bill was growing up in Hot Springs, the town was plagued by illegal gambling, but Bill had little contact with this part of society despite his parents frequent participation in these illegal practices. As time went by his mothers relationship became more and more unstable with the alcoholic Roger Clinton Sr.. The relationship turned abusive and his parents often separated. In high school Bill was a member of the band, student government, honor society and numerous other organizations. One summer at a political summer camp called Boys State, Bill ran for delegate to Boys Nation. He won this election and was on his way to Washington to meet John F. Kennedy and Senator William Fulbright. Bill said of his victory as delegate to Boys Nation, "I didn't know if I could win a race like that, because when I was a student politician, I was about as controversial as I have been in my later life" (Allen pg.10). After meeting JFK and Senator Fulbright face to face, Bill became determined to enter politics. After high school Bill went to the University of Georgetown where he concentrated on international studies, in order to prepare himself for the world of politics. While enrolled at Georgetown, he had to get job to help pay the tuition cost. He took advantage of the meeting he had with Senator Fulbright to get a job as Fulbright's assistant. While at school Clinton was awarded a Rhodes scholarship and went to Oxford to study for two years. After traveling through Europe and graduating form Oxford, he then went on to study law at Yale in 1971. At this time in his life, Bill did something that would come back to haunt him in his political career many years down the road. During the Vietnam war Clinton tried to receive a draft deferment for his education. Also, despite his hatred for the war enrolled in ROTC. He failed to fulfill his enrollment in the program when he realized that if he got a lottery number for the draft, his chances of being called were slim to none. While attending Yale, he met Hillary Rodham and the two started a friendship that turned into a relationship. After graduation from Yale Clinton planned on returning to Hot Springs to set up a small law practice, but on before he left Yale one of his professors suggested that he seek a position as a professor of law at the University of Arkansas. Bill thought about this on the way back to Arkansas and when he arrived there he called up the University and requested an interview. After a few tries, he successfully landed a job on the faculty and began to teach law at age twenty-eight. In 1974 he decided to run for congress in his district and was narrowly defeated by his elder opponent John Paul Hammerschmidt. After this narrow defeat, he received a lot of attention as an up and coming politician. In 1975 Bill and Hillary got married at a house that Bill had just bought. In a small private ceremony, at the wedding reception he announced his intention to run for office in 1976 but was not positive as to whether he would seek the office of States Attorney General or run again for Congress. In 1976 he ran and was elected to the position of States Attorney General. His term as

Mustafa Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers, Research Papers

Mustafa Essays - Free Essays, Term Papers, Research Papers Mustafa Haba una mujer muy chiquita que se llamaba Chiquitn. Chiquitn viva abajo de una calle. La calle estaba en una ciudad arbica, Mustafa. En Mustafa haba mucho sol, y era muy caliente. Haban muchas personas en Mustafa que podran hacer juegos malabares con espadas. Tambin haban otras que podran hacerlo con antorchas. Chiquitn no tena ningn centavo, y necesitaba robar comida cada da. Era muy fcil para Chiquitn porque ella era muy baja, y las personas no podran verla cuando ella robaba la comida. Cuando las personas miraban a Chiquitn, ella les morda a los dedos del pie, y se escapaba. Haba una persona que se llamaba Pumba. Un da, Pumba fue al Mustafa. Pumba era muy grande, y tena una voz muy baja. Un da, Chiquitn intent robar comida de Pumba. Pumba pud sentir a Chiquitn, y la vio por debajo. Cuando Pumba vio para abajo, Chiquitn le pic a los dedos de Pumba muy rpidamente, pero Pumba la agar antes que lla hiciera mucho dao. -Por qu ests robando comida de esas personas?- Pumba le pregunt a Chiquitn. -Porque yo no tengo comida, y por eso, necesito robar mis cosas,- respondi Chiquitn. -Es verdad?- -Si, es verdad.- -Por que le ests picando a los dedos de las personas?- -Es una manera de escapar.- Si quieres comida, debieras preguntarme.- -No, yo no le pregunto a nadie!- En este momento, Pumba pic a Chiquitn. -Por que haces eso?- pregunt Chiquitn. -Para que supiste como me siento,- repondio Pumba. -Mis dedos de mi pie me duelen mucho. Lo siento, Persona Grande. Que es tu nombre?- -Me llamo Pumba.- -Me llamo Chiquitn. Puedo tener un poquito de tu comida, Pumba?- -Absolutamente.-

Ten principles outlined Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Ten principles outlined - Assignment Example The author defines how meditation encourages a healthy lifestyle and increases awareness among individuals. Indeed, through meditation, individuals can recognize and manage their anger with a clear mind, which calms them down (Crane, 2014). Moreover, the article asserts that meditation increases happiness where various studies have established that meditation increases brain signaling in the left side of the prefrontal cortex that derives positive emotions that increases happiness (Crane, 2014). The author quotes other scholars who confirm that meditation increases acceptance and improves overall well-being. Uniquely, studies establish that meditation also slows aging by changing brain physiology. Moreover, the huge gray matter possessed by meditators slows aging. Ultimately, the article confirms that meditation benefits cardiovascular and immune health by inducing relaxation that increases the nitric oxide chemical, which compels blood vessels to open thus reducing blood pressure (Crane, 2014). Apparently, the article is relevant and reliable to discuss the benefits of meditation. I have therefore found the article to be beneficial since it discusses various benefits of meditation. The article quotes relevant studies and scholars that explain the merits of meditation. Indeed, the article supports all its claims relating to the benefits of meditation. Notably, the article is beneficial since it depicts how meditation can improve our health, well-being, and social lives. The happiness, self-awareness, acceptance, good health, and increased concentration that the article presents are fundamental in human life (Crane, 2014). Moreover, the article is current, relevant, and credible to discuss the research topic, benefits of meditation. The article is equally easy to read and access since it is on an international news media. The paper lists, explains, and summarizes the importance of the ten

Why is the term recruitment often used incorrectly What is the correct Assignment - 1

Why is the term recruitment often used incorrectly What is the correct term and expand on the whole process for filling a job vacancy - Assignment Example This is not true as there is a clear distinction between them. So, instead of using the term recruitment alone it would be more appropriate to use the terms recruitment and selection together. Recruitment is the first stage, selection comes after that. These are two interrelated terms. While hiring the best personnel for an organization, the process of job analysis has to be done very carefully. This is important as this process determines the kind of activities that would be included in the job profile and helps to select the people having the qualities that would satisfy the job requirements. The first stage in this process is attracting the candidates for the job (Armstrong, 2006, p. 414). Attracting basically means to identify, evaluate and reach out to the available talent pool. Here a brief idea about the job is given stating the duties and requirements for the job (Armstrong, 2006, p. 418). The advertisement should also include the essential personal characteristics in the form of drive, determination and belief (Armstrong, 2006, p. 418). The advertisement should end with information on how to apply for the job post. Candidates should be specified about the various means like telephone or e mails that can be used for applying for the job. These advertisements for a job vacancy can be published in leading newspaper classifieds, television, internet etc (Armstrong, 2006, p. 418). After the publication of the application, there would be a number of applications for the job. Here the process of sifting or sieving the application forms starts to choose the best applications for the job. This is done by listing the applications on a control sheet using parameters like the name, the date of submission of the application letter etc. After this, proper letters are dispatched to the candidate asking them to submit proper documents like a resume which

Validity, Reliability, and Accuracy Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Validity, Reliability, and Accuracy - Assignment Example This is essential not only to be fair to the student but also get an accurate representative of the class as a whole. In addition, writing such an assessment upfront will alleviate the potential for problems down the road. Students may, for example, become frustrated if an exam is perceived to be unfair. Much time may be spent after the exam with students questioning the very integrity of the assessment itself. In addition, if an exam does not properly test student comprehension about the given material, the teacher may reach a false assumption about the performance of the class, and thus their own teaching as well. With these aims in mind, the intent of this paper is to examine the validity and reliability of the hypothetical business management exam given in the preceding two pages. Validity When considering whether or not a teacher should be concerned over the poor performance shown by their students on a particular exam, one should first look at the assessment itself (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2013, p. 326). Exams need to be valid before their results can really be accepted. Simply because the class, on average, received a failing grade on an exam does not, in itself, indicate that they did not comprehend the material. Upon analyzing the exam, the teacher may discover certain problems with the test that make it invalid in the first place. It could well happen that the teacher re-writes a valid exam, gives it to the same set of students, and they all perform marvelously. For this reason, and others, the validity of any given assessment must be judged before any results on the part of the students are considered and recorded. One way to begin testing the validity of an exam is to consider the grade level of the material. If the exam is given to third... Validity, Reliability, and Accuracy When considering whether or not a teacher should be concerned over the poor performance shown by their students on a particular exam, one should first look at the assessment itself (Kubiszyn & Borich, 2013, p. 326). Exams need to be valid before their results can really be accepted. Simply because the class, on average, received a failing grade on an exam does not, in itself, indicate that they did not comprehend the material. According to Kubiszyn and Borich (2013), â€Å"The reliability of a test refers to the consistency with which it yields the same rank for individuals who take the test more than once† (p. 338). The indication here is that a student within a given class should rank in nearly the same place every time if the same exam is given to the same class. According to Kubiszyn and Borich (2013), â€Å"No test measures perfectly, and many tests fail to measure as well as we would like them to† (p. 348). The key is to realize that there will almost be some level of error in an exam, but the teacher must work hard to minimize that error to the greatest degree possible. Finally, there could be an error in scoring. This is particularly important to monitor if a human scores the exam. For this exam, the teacher can eliminate this error, to a great extent, by not scoring the exam when they are tired or in a rush. It is advisable to score an exam in batches, rather than all at once, to ensure that fatigue does no impact the marking of each response.

Egypt And Water Crisis Issues

Egypt And Water Crisis Issues Water is an essential resource that humans demands on In order to live, some countries are affected by the water crisis due to three important resources the scarcity of usable water, drought, and water pollution. Egypt faces water crisis mainly water pollution, which is one of the major problem facing the global circumstance, one of the causes to the water pollution problem is that it is not actually illegal to dump pollutants into water bodies. (Caroline, 2009) In my research paper I will be explaining why was Egypt hit by water crisis describing its causes, effects, and solutions, I will also be using four types of methodology descriptive, statistical descriptive, analytical, and data. Egypt has signed an agreement with other 10 countries to share the Nile river water that provides fresh water for agriculture, industry and human consumption. Egypt not like any other country which is located at the end of the river system allows it exploit massive control over how countries up-stream uses the Niles water resources. Due to the high growth of population and climate change the share of water will be reduced. (Cathcart, 2007) Another problem that Egypt might be facing soon is the share of water between Egypt and the Nile basin states. In the beginning of 2010, several states that are located on the Nile River signed an agreement among them for a redistribution of Nile waters, and by that they threatened Egypts uneven share based on previous treaties. In Egypts poor areas people travel a really long distance to just get clean water and when they get there they maybe shortage of water so they will start fighting over the clean water .(barsoum, 2007) Body Several facts that have hit Egypt with water crisis first of all Egypt maintain legal and political position on Nile water crisis. The main objective of the study is to analyze the crisis of the Nile Basin, and its effect on Egypt. As it, influence the relation between the ten countries falling aside the Nile River. Literature review Eleiba, 2011 explained the new agreement for the redistribution of the Nile water signed by several Nile basins countries. By this new agreement they threatened Egypts uneven share based on previous treaties. Participant states argued the need for a greater share of Nile waters to drive domestic development. Egyptian prime mister of irrigation and water resources also said at the time that there must be consensus among all Nile states to amend any standing arrangement. Upon the new agreement that was signed Egypt and Sudan werent involved and it was a shock for the prime minister because the agreement put an end to the assurance of signatory states towards Egypt. Egypt sent a report to the national security agency and the ministry of foreign affairs to aid us on this false agreement that Egypt didnt sign to but unfortunately no action was taken. But Egypts legal advisor moahamed sameh amr said that they had more than one problem blocking the accomplishment of the framework agreement by foundation countries without the contribution of Egypt and Sudan. Both counties maintain the old status quo of them using the biggest percentage of the water as stipulated in two colonial agreements they signed with the British in 1929 and 1959. Egypt has a right to use about 75 percent of the water while Sudan has 11 percent and the rest of the seven countries share 14 percent. (Eleiba, 2011) After that we will see that Water pollution in Egypt reached complex stage, a report by the Egyptian ministry of environment has indicated that Egypt had reached a drinking water pollution problem which is a complex stage. This resulted from the Nile river which suffered from pollution particularly from canals branching from it, these pollution are caused by swage from cities, towns and, epically from direct and indirect waste produced factories, Egyptian ministry of environment stated that there was lack of cleanliness services over the past years. The problem of water pollution is very complex due to including the lack of enormous investments to get rid of pollution, plus wide number of laws and bodies organization water resources has blocked solution to the problem. (George, 2009) The drought problem now according to Ibrahim Abou Ouf, an Egyptian Member of Parliament, Egypt will face severe water shortages by the year 2025 and portrayed the crisis as a possible drought, the Water Research Center of Egypt announced The report which was issued by the Egypts Water Research center stated that 60% of farms would not be receiving any water due to the limiting of water supplements. Increasing pollution will be one of the main reasons of the shortage of water facing Egypt. The rapid increase in population in Egypt, moreover miscarriage, absence of good management of water distribution and water pollution will be expected as the main reasons for the shortage. During the summer of 2010 Egyptians take to streets to protest water crisis (Ouf, 2007) The methodology included in this paper is descriptive which describes the causes of water crisis in Egypt and the agreements with the Nile basin countries. Second type of methodology is statistical descriptive I will be using indicators to show the economic effects of the water crisis on the Egyptian economy. Third type of methodology is analytical I will analyze the impact of the water crisis and how it influences the potentials of the Egyptian economy and discussing different solutions. The fourth type of methodology is data where the total consumption of water in Egypt has risen to 17%, the share of Egypt they consume 55.5 billion Cubic meters of waters year the main problem is people consider the water when it is being polluted that it is spoiled by anthropogenic which is effected by human activity or does not contain the support of human use, we have other sources that cause to water pollution like storms, volcanoes and earthquakes these phenomena changes the quality and the ecological status of the water. We have two types of water that they are likely to be contaminated but they are naturally, the first type is surface water consists of the rivers, lakes, and oceans covering most of the earths surface. The second type is groundwater which is considered a pristine resource has been shown to be subject to considerable contamination from toxic chemicals. Groundwater is water beneath the earths surface in soils or rocks, or in geological formations that are fully saturated. Some contamination maybe be considered accidental the product of unintended and unexpected waste migration to water supplies, a portion of the contamination was deliberate. Watercourses were simply a convenient place to dump municipal or private swage and industrial wastes. Along the shoreline of many lakes or rivers, pipes dumping human or industrial wastes directly into the water a common occurrence before laws limiting this activity were enacted ad enforced. Water crisis hits Egypt due to two main things water pollution and drought, I will give an example about how water is being polluted in Egypt In one of the articles that I found is talking about the lake temsah in suez . Lake Temsah is at a point where nearly all the waste waters are discharged like public agriculture and industrial this lake is connected to the Suez Canal and of course by that we will see that petroleum oil will be passed that are being produced by the Arab gulf to the rest of the world. The Temsah Lake is a major source of fishing because it serves the area of Ismailia which is a tourism site where the industries flourishes. There have been many complaints and it caused a great affect to the fishing and the tourism industries due to the high level of pollution happening to the lake. For the people living in Brulus on the Nile delta they only have a large puddle of drinking water which is contaminated, fury and desperation took place in Brulus and they went to the s treets protesting about the contained water, one of the protestors said We have to use this water, we have no choice. Dead dogs and donkeys are thrown into this water. Its very dirty yet. We use it for drinking, to wash our clothes and dishes. According to the UN tens of thousands of people die each year in Egypt from water borne diseases or dehydration. Not only people are suffering from water even the crops they are dying from thirst, the farmers are not producing enough crops and it puts the farmers in a critical situation which they are falling in debt due to bad harvest, farmers cant sleep at night because of thirst and they have no option except to ask God for help. One of the parliament members Hadeen Sabbahi said: There is a hidden and ignored thirst problem in Egypt. The protests here brought light to the problem. How can a country that has the Nile River suffer like this? A glass of clean water is a basic right of all citizens. (barsoum, 2007) Now I will shift to the drought problem When the high damn was first bulit in 1964. After 6 years the reservior called lake nasser was full. A predict of 90,000 people were put out of place and more than 5,000 square kilometers of land was flooded. The only everlasting grazing areas of the Ababda and the Besharin were gone under water and the remains of their lands have suffered from a decades long drought. This lead to a decrease in the wealth of the bedouin and the Ababda and the Besharin were one of poorest people in Egypt. In 2007 the Egyptian government and the World Food Program started agricultural projects to present the bedouins an option to life in the desert. The drought problem now according to Ibrahim Abou Ouf, an Egyptian Member of Parliament, Egypt will face severe water shortages by the year 2025 and portrayed the crisis as a possible drought, the Water Research Center of Egypt announced The report which was issued by the Egypts Water Research center stated that 60% of farms would not be receiving any water due to the limiting of water supplements. The factors causing this drought is the Increasing pollution will be one of the main reasons of the shortage of water facing Egypt. moreover miscarriage, absence of good management of water distribution and water pollution will be expected as the main reasons for the shortage. (ouf, 2007). The citezines living in poor area could not take it any more so it lead the to protest in the streets. On the 28th of July 2010 there were thousands of people protested in Cairo upon the government to try to make the government aware of the severe water crisis that is affecting the livelihoods. We will find that the water consumption has increased over time and the reason behind this is the irrigation method these protest are some ways the governments reluctance to relinquish its current share of River Nile water. There were other cities also included in the protest such as minya there were 600 people went and sat in front of the irrigation ministry in Cairo due to the lack of water they are facing. During the previous years there have been protest about the shortage of water but in 2010 it has been more extraordinary. One engineering student from Cairo college riad aldamk was working on a project and he said that Egypts total water consumption had increased by 17% in the last five years, according to studies conducted by the college. Hotter summers were partly to blame. The Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics (CAPMAS) also stated that by 2017 we will face a massive decline of 15.2billion cubic meters from a required 86.2 billion cubic meters to a projected 71.4 billion cubic meters. Egypt consumes 700 cubic meters of water per year and the average consumption of the 15 countries is 1000 cubic meter, the CAMPAS also said that the loss of water comes from agriculture and the blame goes to the irrigation method because they lose about 8-17 billion cubic meter of water per year which is enormous. To help the irrigations system the Egyptian government went on an agreement with the water user association (WUA). During 1984 the water user association (WUA) was established and is one of the measures associated with the IIP project. The irrigation improvement project (IIP a major nation-wide program accepted out by the Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation and the USAID, World Bank and other donors since 1984. Their job is to improve t he efficiency of the water and farms level. This program aims to save freshwater by reducing losses on farm level. The WUA also helps the farmers to be involved on how to improve water delivery system and of course that requires them to play a role to ensure efficiency operation and maintenance. The Egyptian government issued law 213 in 1994 where WUAs were defined as legal private organizations at the mesqa level in the improved irrigation systems, owned and operated by their members for their own benefit in the old lands. The same also introduced the Water Users Unions, (WUUs) which are applicable for the New Lands. The WUA and the IIp are related together and by that they have certain functions. The main functions of WUAs as described within the IIP are: Participation in planning, design, and construction of improved mesqas. Operation, maintenance, and follow-up of the improved mesqas. Improvement of water use activities on the mesqa level. Identification of roles and responsibilities of the mesqas head and setting up rules to resolve conflicts. Establishment of linkages for coordination with other agriculture and irrigation concerned agencies. Establishment of linkages for coordination with other WUAs. Development of financial resources in order to improve operation and maintenance. Participation with higher-level organizations of the branch canal and cooperation with the district engineer. Water pollution in Egypt reached complex stage, a report by the Egyptian ministry of environment has pointed out that Egypt had reached a drinking water pollution problem. This resulted from the Nile river which suffered from pollution particularly from canals branching from it, these pollution are caused by swage from cities, towns and, epically from direct and indirect waste produced factories, Egyptian ministry of environment stated that there was lack of cleanliness services over the past years. The problem of water pollution in is very complex due to including the lack of enormous investments to get rid of pollution, plus wide number of laws and bodies organization water resources has blocked solution to the problem. (Aldamk, 2010). Egypt the Nile basin, though, is in the trusteeship of 11 civilizing and ethnically various African nation states, four of which (Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda), have very serious national interests tied up in the river. The river Nile flows in Egypt through Lake Nasser, an artificial lake created by the building of the Aswan High Dam., Egypts capability to manage the annual flooding of the lower Nile river valley through the building of dams and the construction of irrigation systems. Due to global climate change by the year 2020 around 250million people are to be exposed to water shortage Local food supplies are predictable to be negatively precious by decreasing fisheries resources in large lakes due to rising water temperatures, which may be exacerbated by continued over-fishing. Towards the end of the 21st century, projected sea-level rise will affect low-lying coastal areas with large populations. The cost of adaptation could amount to at least 5-10% of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). (Cathcart, 2007) Another problem that Egypt might be facing soon is the share of water between Egypt and the Nile basin states. An emerging water crisis is emerging between the 10 Nile Basin countries depends on the 6741kilometre stretch Nile River; Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Kenya, Tanzania and Burundi. In 1999, The Nile Basin countries created the NBI Nile Basin Initiative. Consequently, many disputes created between Egypt and Sudan occurred. Besides, there were many challenges from the other countries on the validity of the agreement. The other countries argue that the agreement was not fair, and that it was assigned during a colonial period, but now Africa is independent. Now, Egypt and Sudan did not want to join the agreement with the other countries. Besides, five countries (Ethiopia, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania) signed an agreement in May without the rest of countries. However, the rest of the countries do not depend on the Nile, but for Egypt and Sudan, the Nile River considered their whole life. From here, the disputes emerged. However, the countries signed the agreement and trying it begins it. Besides, they gave the other countries -Egypt, Sudan, Burundi, and Democratic republics Congo-a chance one year in order to join the agreement. Nevertheless, this agreement ne eds a minimum of six countries to sign. Thus, Democratic Republic Congo and Burundi seemed to be silent about what they plan, but Egypt and Sudan disagreeing about this agreement. In addition, the minister of water Kamal Ali Muhamed decided to stop the cooperation with the NBI as a result of the agreement. (E. Sokari, July 2010) The Nile River is about 3.35 million KM2. Agriculture is the main activity for the people in the Nile Basin. Most of the people in the upper and lower Basin were pastoralist. The upper riparian included Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi and Democratic Republic of Congo that they have a small use of the Nile as well as generate a hydro-electric power. But Egypt and Sudan located in the lower that used the river widely for irrigation and generate hydro electric power. The upper riparian supply the Nile Water to the lower riparian(K. Abraham, 1997). Egypt considered one of the riparian that use the Nile River greatly. This is because of its historical, geographical and economic situations. Most of the Egyptian people are farmers so they depend on the Nile River in order to live and about 98% of the population lives in the Nile River. The Nile is considered the source of life for all Egyptian so; Egypt made good relations with Ethiopia because 86% of the Nile water originates in Ethiopia (K. Abraham, 1997). After the 1929 agreement between Egypt and Britain, Egypt started to build a huge dam and barrages without asking the Upper riparian. Arsano stated that the Egyptian government desired to control the all the Nile water, during the 19th and the 20th century, by restoring the Nile water into the dams during the floods and this led to increase the security for permanent irrigation(K. Abraham, 1997). After the 1959 agreement between Egypt and Sudan without including the other Nile Basin countries, Sudan get about 18.5 billion Cubic meters but Egypt get 55.5 billion Cubic meters of waters and the high Dam was build that helped in increasing the cropped areas by 103 million acres and helped in generating more hydro electric powers. After this agreement Egypt neglected the need of others upper riparian. Moreover, the new investment of Sinai and Khraga/Dakhala water creations projects were made without any discussions with the upper riparian. Egypt started to make more projects in Sinai and new artificial lakes which led the upper riparian to take actions to use the water of the Nile (K. Abraham, 1997). The second country that uses the Nile water greatly is Sudan. Sudan started to build many dams to protect water for irrigation. In 1925, the first dam was build on the Blue Nile in Sudan called Senna Dam and Jebel Awlia Dam was the second Dam was built on the White Nile in 1937. After the 1959 agreement, the Rosaries Dam was built on the Blue Nile, which helped in storing about 2.4 billion cubic meters km2. Moreover, in 1962, the Khasim-el Gerba Dam was founded and helped in increase the cultivated areas in Sudan (K. Abraham, 1997). One of the main problems of conflict is associated with the equitable sharing of the resources of the Nile River water; Ethiopia is the supplier of the Nile River water but it used a very small share of it. K. Abraham stated that the other upper countries had the same problem as Ethiopia. On the other hand, Sudan considered itself as the main beneficiary of this water. It found that the use of the Nile river water did not depend on law but upper countries said that Egypt and Sudan supplied nothing of it but using most of it. The upper riparian use a very small amount of the Nile River water although they are the suppliers of the Nile Water. Arsona stated that the Nile Basin upper countries want to use some of their resources of the Nile River water but the lower countries (Egypt and Sudan) are going to use more Nile water above their needs. Arsona stated that the water problem increased because of increasing the population rate sharply and each Nile Basin country want to use its water resource to the maximum. This level that each country needed are higher the level of available water resources. The lower riparian used about 65.5 billion cubic meters of the Nile water in the agriculture projects. This amount I 12.26 billion cubic meter more than the total available water resource in the Nile basin (K. Abraham, 1997). According to Arsona This is a clear indication that when all riparian come up with their respective national water master plans the available water resources and national demands will be at irreconcilable variance. (K. Abraham, 1997). Growth of population is not only the main problem but it is one of the main factors, another other significant factor of this water issue that there is no a legal mechanism on the base of which water sharing could be made and regulated. The current agreements are bilateral as well as excessively support lower riparian. K. Abraham stated that the difficulty of the water issue of the using and sharing an equal amount of the Nile water (K. Abraham, 1997). According to K. Abraham, The difficulty of water problem is using and sharing an equal amount of the water; this amount is highlighted by a lot of agreement such as 1902 Anglo- Ethiopia agreement and the water agreement between Egypt and Sudan without Ethiopia in 1929 and 1959 and Ethiopia did not find an available amount of water to use. The increase in the population rate in the Nile Basin countries led to increase the pressure on the Nile water. (K. Abraham, 1997). Actions taken by Egypt In the beginning of 2010, several states that are on the Nile signed an agreement among them for a redistribution of Nile waters, and by that they threatened Egypts uneven share based on previous treaties. Participant states argued the need for a greater share of Nile waters to drive domestic development. Egyptian prime mister of irrigation and water resources also said at the time that there must be consensus among all Nile states to amend any standing arrangement. Upon the new agreement that was signed Egypt and Sudan werent involved and it was a shock for the prime minister because the agreement put an end to the assurance of signatory states towards Egypt. Egypt sent a report to the national security agency and the ministry of foreign affairs to aid us on this false agreement that Egypt didnt sign to but unfortunately no action was taken. But Egypts legal advisor moahamed sameh amr said that they had more than one problem blocking the accomplishment of the framework agreement by foundation countries without the contribution of Egypt and Sudan. First of all the incomplete agreement between the Nile basin countries since the they didnt not meet legal requirements, most importantly the text of Article 14b residues under discussion, which pertains to Egypts privileges to river water according to previous international agreements. Authorized committees had agreed to follow a consensual not a mainstream decision-making model, as is the rule for adopting resolutions. Most importantly the agreement was signed and this leads to a clear contravention of standing rules since it was opened for signatures before reaching consensus. The fact that some source countries have already signed unilaterally is a breach of procedure. Amr has stated I an important question: How can we reach out to these countries at a time when they are drafting agreements against Egypts interests? This cooperation will not be fruitful because of them. concerning the legal consequence of source countries unilaterally signing the agreement without upriver states, Amr clarified that according to international law the agreement is not obligatory except for on its signatories, and that they alone are responsible for its stipulations. This means that legal action is confined to the signatories and anyone else is considered a third party, even if they had participated in the negotiation process. At the same time other countries cant cross the line of the international rules before notifying any development project they are willing to make therefore Egypt must take notice or be consulted before any country of upper river are willing to take action. The director of the centre for African studies and research has stated that the relation between the source countries and the other country that are upriver in particularly Egypt is fractured. He also added that Ethiopia has played an aggressive role and despite of Cairos policies it will be hard to change this ro le. The Ethiopians regularly maintain Egyptian imperialism. Conclusion: In my point of view water pollution cannot be solved if they have found one it would be that much of a problem or Hassel, the Egyptian government has taken the aid of the water user association (WUA) in order to improve the management of water distribution and the failure of the agriculture and irrigation system by doing only this step we can solve water crisis in Egypt because the irrigation system wastes about 8-17 billion cubic meter of water a year and the Egyptian government consumes 55 billion cubic meter of water per year. In order to make some different in this prospective we have 3 major categories education, laws and economics. By education u make people aware by the problem and how they can try to solve it. Like in Britain when they suffered from catching illness from polluted water and they formed and organization called surfers against sewage to make the government and water companies to work and clean up. By law the government has to put rules against polluters and sanctions against factories that produce pollution and each country should have a certain amount of pollution it should produce. By economics they all think in economics the best way to fight pollution is to do something called polluter pays principles its exactly the same like laws who ever creates pollution should pay for it and to clean up for what he did. Outline Introduction Literature review Water pollution Causes of water pollution and drought in Egypt Effects of water pollution and droughts in Egypt Solutions to water pollution and drought in Egypt Conclusion